Continuing from Part #2C: Linguistic, in this series, Was Jesus executed on a cross or a stake? As before, my method will be to
[Above: The Alexamenos Graffito, "The graffito shown below is from first century (AD) Rome. ... It obviously mocks a Christian ... The human figure with the ass head on the cross is presumably Jesus ...," Rodney J. Decker.]
quote in bold from Appendix 3C of the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's, "The Kingdom Interlinear Translation," 1985, pp.1149-1151, and then comment on that quote.
In the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C.E., crux means a mere stake. The Watchtower Society has been making this claim since at least 1950:
"Even in the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C., crux means a mere stake." (NWT, 1950, pp.769-770. See also KIT, 1969, p.1155 & NWT, 1984, p.1577).
As Leolaia pointed out in her "The facts on crucifixion, stauros, and the `torture stake'," the "word crux ... appeared six times in Livy's writings":
"... the word crux in its various inflected forms appeared six times in Livy's writings ... Each and every one of these references to crucifixion are laconic and devoid of detail as to the manner of the execution; none of the six excerpts reveal any information indicating what the nature of the crux was like. When Livy did refer to the crux simplex, he used the word palus ... The Society's claim must therefore be dismissed as false." (Leolaia, 2005).
I am indebted to Leolaia's references in her post above, and I agree that, "none of the six ... reveal any information indicating what the nature of the crux was like." However, when they are combined with the at least two instances where Livy referred to being bound to a palum or "stake" i.e. crux simplex, then that becomes evidence that by crux (or cruci) Livy meant something other than a single-beamed "stake," i.e. a two-beamed cross (see below).
Consistent with my policy of quoting from the primary sources where possible, here are quotes of those six references to crux and two to palus in Livy's writings, which I obtained from a library and scanned (my emphasis bold):
"Whereupon he scourged the guide, and, to terrify the others, crucified [crucem sublato] him ... [B.C. 217]" (Livy, "History of Rome," 22.13).
"... five and twenty slaves were crucified [crucem acti], on the charge of having conspired in the Campus Martius. [B.C. 217] " (Livy, 22.33).
"He thereupon enticed their sufetes-the highest magistrates among the Phoenicians-together with the treasurer to a conference and ordered them to be scourged and crucified [cruci adfigi]. [B.C. 206]" (Livy, 28.37).
"The deserters were more severely treated than the runaway slaves, Latin citizens being beheaded, Romans crucified [crucem sublati]. [B.C. 201]" (Livy, 30.43).
"... some, who had been the instigators of the revolt, he scourged and crucified [crucibus adfixit], others he turned over to their masters. [B.C. 196]" (Livy, 33.36).
"...even if I were pleading ... before the Carthaginian senate, where commanders are said to be crucified [crucem tolli] if they have conducted a campaign with successful result but defective policy ... [B.C. 187] " (Livy, 38.48).
"When Livy did refer to the crux simplex, he used the word palus." (Leolaia, 2005):
"Bound to a stake [Deligati ad palum] they were scourged and beheaded ... [B.C. 206] " (Livy, 28.29).
"... bound to a stake [ad palum deligatus], with my back mangled by rods... [B.C. 211] " (Livy, 26.13).
From the above it can be seen that Livy (59BC-AD17), made a distinction between being crucified (crucem) on a cruci and being bound to a stake (ad palum deligatus). That is, between being affixed (adfigi, adfixit = ad "to" + figo "to fix, fasten, attach, to drive in, pierce" - "Collins Latin Dictionary," 1995) to a cruci and being tied to a palum.
`Cross' is only a later meaning of crux. A single stake for impalement of a criminal was called in Latin crux simplex. And since the Watchtower admits that crux originally meant "a single stake" and then "later" became a two-beamed cross, if "In the writings of Livy" cruci or crux meant something other than "a single stake," it must have by at least the time Livy was writing about, the third century BC, come to mean a two-beamed cross.
Therefore, the Society's claim that "In the writings of Livy ... crux means a mere stake," is false. In the writings of Livy, from the third century BC, the word crux meant not a single-beamed stake, but a two-beamed cross!
To be continued in Part #3B Historical, where we will see that the historical evidence is overwhelming and irrefutable that crux and therefore also its Greek equivalent stauros, had come to mean a two-beamed cross, by at least the third century BC.
[...]
See `tagline' quotes below (original emphasis italics, my emphasis bold).
Stephen E. Jones.
My other blogs: CreationEvolutionDesign & TheShroudofTurin
"actio, -onis f action, doing; official duties, negotiations; (law) action, suit, indictment, pleading, case, trial; (RHET) delivery; (drama) plot; ... ad prep (with acc) to, towards, against; near, at; until; (num) about; with regard to, according to; for the purpose of, for; compared with; besides; ... adfigo, -gere, -xi, -xum vt to fasten, attach; to impress (on the mind). ... adfixus ppp of adfigo. ... figo, -gere, -xi, -xum vt to fix, fasten, attach, to drive in, pierce ... " (Kidd, D.A., 1995, "Collins Paperback Latin Dictionary," HarperCollins: London, pp.4-5. Emphasis original).
"[22.13] But the difficulty experienced by Carthaginians [B.C. 217] in pronouncing Latin names caused the guide to understand Casilinum instead of Casinum; and quitting the proper road he led him down through the districts of Allifae, Caiatia and Cales into the Plain of Stella. There Hannibal, looking round on the mountains and rivers that enclosed the plain, called up the guide and asked him where in the world he was. And only when the guide had answered that he should lodge that night in Casilinum, did he perceive at last how the man had blundered, and that Casinum lay far off in another direction. Whereupon he scourged the guide, and, to terrify the others, crucified [crucem sublato] him, and going into camp behind entrenchments, dispatched Maharbal with the cavalry to ravage the Falernian country side." (Livy, 1929, "History of Rome," Vol. V, Foster, B.O., transl., Loeb Classical Library, Heinemann: London, Reprinted, 1957, p.245).
"[22.33] At about this time a Carthaginian spy [B.C. 217] who for two years had eluded capture was caught in Rome, and after his hands had been cut off, was allowed to go; and five and twenty slaves were crucified [crucem acti], on the charge of having conspired in the Campus Martius."(Livy, 1929, pp.309,311).
"[26.13] I shall not see Appius Claudius and Quintus Fulvius, emboldened by their insolent victory, nor [B.C. 211] shall I be dragged in chains through the city of Rome as a spectacle in a triumph, so that I may then breathe my last in the prison, or else, bound to a stake [ad palum deligatus], with my back mangled by rods, may submit my neck to the Roman axe." (Livy, 1943, "History of Rome," Vol. VII, Moore, F.G., transl., Loeb Classical Library, Heinemann: London, Reprinted, 1958, pp.51,53).
"[28.29] The herald's voice was heard, calling out the: names of [B.C. 206] those condemned in the war-council. They were being dragged out into the centre stripped, and at the same time everything requisite for punishment was being brought out. Bound to a stake [Deligati ad palum] they were scourged and beheaded, while the spectators were so paralysed by fear that not only was no fierce protest against the severity of the punishment heard, but not even a groan." (Livy, 1949, "History of Rome," Vol. VIII, Moore, F.G., transl., Loeb Classical Library, Heinemann: London, Reprinted, 1955, p.123).
"[28.37] Mago, upon his return to Gades finding [B.C. 206] himself shut out of the city, put in with his fleet [B.C. 206] to Cimbii, a place not far from Gades. He sent emissaries and complained because the gates had been closed against him, an ally and friend. The Gaditani tried to excuse themselves, saying it was done by a mob enraged on account of some looting committed by the soldiers as they were embarking. He thereupon enticed their sufetes-the highest magistrates among the Phoenicians-together with the treasurer to a conference and ordered them to be scourged and crucified [cruci adfigi]." (Livy, 1949, p.149).
"[30.43]The ships Scipio ordered to be put to sea and to he burned. Some historians relate that [B.C. 201] there were five hundred of them - every type of vessel propelled by oars; and that when the Carthaginians suddenly caught sight of the fire it was as doleful for them as if Carthage itself were in flames. The deserters were more severely treated than the runaway slaves, Latin citizens being beheaded, Romans crucified [crucem sublati]." (Livy, 1949, p.533).
"[33.36] While these events were taking place in Greece, Macedonia, and Asia, a slave [B.C. 196] insurrection rendered Etruria almost a battle-field. Manius Acilius Glabrio, the praetor exercising jurisdiction in cases between citizens and aliens, was sent with one of the two city legions to investigate and suppress it, and destroyed part of them, cutting them off in detail, part of them by encountering them in a body; many of them were killed and many captured; some, who had been the instigators of the revolt, he scourged and crucified [crucibus adfixit], others he turned over to their masters." (Livy, 1935, "History of Rome," Vol. IX, Sage, E.T., transl., Loeb Classical Library, Heinemann: London, Reprinted, 1953, p.373).
"[38.48] Now, since I have answered the charge that I [B.C. 187] initiated the war, I must render account for its conduct. In this I for my part should trust my own cause even if I were pleading, not before the Roman, but before the Carthaginian senate, where commanders are said to be crucified [crucem tolli] if they have conducted a campaign with successful result but defective policy ..." (Livy, 1936, "History of Rome," Vol. XI, Sage, E.T., transl., Loeb Classical Library, Heinemann: London, Reprinted, 1958, p.169).
"The fact that stau•ros' is translated crux in the Latin versions furnishes no argument against this. Any authoritative Latin dictionary will inform the examiner that the basic meaning of crux is a `tree, frame, or other wooden instrument of execution' on which criminals were impaled or hanged. (Lewis-Short) A cross is only a later meaning of crux. Even in the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C., crux means a mere stake." WB&TS, 1950, "New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, pp.769-770).
"The fact that stau ros' is translated crux in the Latin versions furnishes no argument against this. Any authoritative Latin dictionary will inform the examiner that the basic meaning of crux is a `tree, frame, or other wooden instrument of execution" on which criminals were impaled or hanged. (Lewis Short) A cross is only a later meaning of crux. Even in the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C., crux means a mere stake." (WB&TS, 1969, "The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY, Second printing, p.1155).
"The Latin dictionary by Lewis and Short gives as the basic meaning of crux `a tree, frame, or other wooden instruments of execution, on which criminals were impaled or hanged.' In the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C.E., crux means a mere stake. `Cross' is only a later meaning of crux. A single stake for impalement of a criminal was called in Latin crux sim'plex." (WB&TS, 1984, "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures: With References," [1961], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, p.1577).
"The Society also falsely claims that crux meant only `stake' in the days of the Roman historian Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17). We read in the 1950 New World Translation appendix: `The fact that stauros is translated crux in the Latin versions furnishes no argument against [the `torture stake' doctrine]... .A cross is only a later meaning of crux. Even in the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C.E., crux means a mere stake' (p. 770). The 22 June 1984 Awake! likewise remarked: `The Latin word used for the instrument on which Christ died was crux which, according to Livy, a famous Roman historian of the first century C.E., means a mere stake' (p. 17). Finally, the version of the New World Translation published in the same year stated: `In the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C.E., crux means a mere stake. `Cross' is only a later meaning of crux' (p. 1577). But this claim does not stand up to critical scrutiny. Notice that the Society never backs up its claim with references to Livy's writings. A careful examination of Livy's writings shows the historian never used crux the way the Society says he did, i.e. with specific reference to a crux simplex. According to Packard's Concordance to Livy, the word crux in its various inflected forms appeared six times in Livy's writings (p. 1011). These are quoted below with their contexts: `Whereupon he scourged the guide, and, to terrify others, crucified ( crucem sublato ) him, and going into the camp behind the entrenchments, dispatched Maharbal with the cavalry' (22.13.9). `Five and twenty slaves were crucified ( crucem acti ), on the charge of having conspired in the Campus Martius' (22.33.2). `He thereupon ... ordered them [high-ranking officials] to be scourged and crucified ( cruci adfigi ). Then he crossed over to his ships to the island of Pityusa' (28.37.3). (4) `The deserters were severely treated than the runaway slaves, Latin citizens being beheaded, Romans crucified (crucem sublati)' (30.43.13). `Some, who had been the instigators of the revolt, he scourged and crucified (crucibus adfixit), others he turned over to their masters' (33.36.3). `In this I for my part should trust my own cause even if I were pleading, not before the Roman, but before the Carthaginian senate, where commanders are said to be crucified (crucem tolli) if they have conducted a campaign with successful but defective policy' (38.48.13). Each and every one of these references to crucifixion are laconic and devoid of detail as to the manner of the execution; none of the six excerpts reveal any information indicating what the nature of the crux was like. When Livy did refer to the crux simplex, he used the word palus: `Bound to a stake (deligati ad palum) they were scourged and beheaded' (28.29.11; cf. also 26.13.15). The Society's claim must therefore be dismissed as false." (Leolaia, 2005, "The facts on crucifixion, stauros, and the `torture stake,'" Jehovah's Witnesses Discussion Forum, 11 June).
Posts
No comments:
Post a Comment